There are four main components to emergency communications:

1. 911 call delivery
2. Call processing at the Public Safety Answering Point (PSAP)
3. Wireless call dispatch
4. The Emergency Alert System.

These four components are not part of a unified national system. Rather, there is extensive variation among the nation's counties, cities and towns in terms of the number, function and sophistication of the communications system employed. And any one system typically involves any number of components, each with a different set of vendors and suppliers, and each with potentially different regulatory or jurisdictional oversight. Yet, inasmuch as the system is comprised of a variety of components, these components must interoperate in order to achieve a successful response to an emergency.

911 Calls

As an emergency unfolds everyone has questions, and detailed information is necessary for the best response. Remember, too, that everyone is under stress that further compounds the problem.

If your call is answered by a law enforcement agency and you are reporting a fire or medical emergency, the call-taker will transfer your call---stay on the line while the call is transferred. The call-taker who answers will need information about the incident.

Three important pieces of information needs to be communicated during an emergency.

Who, Where and What
1. Who Are You?

   The first step in an emergency communication involves delivering the call from the person reporting the emergency to the appropriate dispatch center as indicated by the Number 1 on the figure. There are approximately 300,000 emergency calls per day in the United States. The 911 Emergency Reporting System is the portion of the emergency communications system that enables a caller to dial a common three-digit number for all emergency services. Today, some form of 911 covers over 90 percent of the population.

   When reporting an emergency or receiving a warning, first clearly identify who you are. This is important because based on who gives them information, people react differently.

   For example; think about the different reactions that might happen in the following situation: Someone calls the communications person and says “There’s a large fire going here! Get help!” How would the communications person respond, if the miner making that call had been on the mine rescue team for 10 years and was known to be a calm and levelheaded person? Would the communications person react the same way, if the individual making the call was a young, inexperienced miner who had only been working there for a month? Most likely, the communications person will act much more quickly based on the warning given by the mine rescue team member than that given by the inexperienced miner. In the later case, the communications person will probably look for confirmation of the problem from someone else more experienced.

   When people receiving a warning do not know who it is from, they are likely to try and gather more information before acting and thus, critical time can be lost.

   Remember, when providing a warning, identify yourself.

2. Where is the Emergency?

   Give or find out the location of the problem. This may seem like common sense, but it doesn’t always happen.

   For example, one day the communications person at a large underground mine received a call from a miner who said, “There’s a fire on the belt!” The person making the call then took off to start fighting the fire. The communications person was left knowing only that somewhere on the mine’s more than 7 miles of belt there was a fire. The communications person’s first task was to find out the location of the problem, not initiating a response.

   Another example comes from research conducted on three mine fires that forced the evacuation through smoke of more than 60 miners. Of the forty-eight miners interviewed about their experiences, only two knew where the fire was located as they were escaping, even though this information was known by the dispatcher or the person who discovered the fire. As a result, miners had to make decisions about escape routes without knowing the source of the problem. This lack of knowledge also increased the stress during the situation because they couldn’t determine how far they would have to walk to find fresh air.

3. What Emergency is happening?

   Tell exactly what is happening at the scene. Again, this may seem like common sense, but it does not always happen in an emergency.

   For example, during one serious mine fire, a warning message was given for everyone on the section to evacuate. Miners who had been near the phone when the call came in went to gather the others on their crew. One of these miners, a shuttle car operator, ducked under the check curtain and yelled to the miner operator saying, “Come on down to the mantrip. We’re going out.” Since the belt was down and it was close to quitting time, the miner operator and his helper thought they were just leaving the section a little early. They went through their normal end of shift routine including backing the continuous miner out of the cut, setting jacks, tightening check curtains, and disconnecting the power before reporting to the mantrip. Thus, valuable time was lost.

In summary remember: Who, Where, and What. It seems simple. But if we don’t think about it, the job of communicating necessary information doesn’t get done.

911 Emergency Details

After giving the three most important pieces of information (Who, Where, and What), there are still three more questions that need to be answered:

1. Endangered People
   1. Is anyone hurt?
   2. Has everyone been accounted for?
   3. When and where was a missing person last seen?
   4. If individuals are in trouble, make them the highest priority by reporting what you know.

2. Event Description
   1. Will this problem require a first aid kit or an ambulance?
   2. Should we call for mine rescue teams or just a couple of fire extinguishers?
   3. Report exactly what you are facing.

3. Emergency Response
   1. What's been done so far? (No need to duplicate efforts.)
   2. How many people are on the scene?
   3. What equipment is on scene?
   4. Be specific about what equipment is needed.

   For example, during an emergency at one mine that had battery powered haulage equipment, the responders couldn't take scoops and other equipment out of service long enough to allow the batteries to be fully charged. They called a neighboring mine and asked for help in the form of additional scoops, batteries, and chargers. The neighbor said, "Of course, we'll send over whatever you need." In response, the neighboring mine then sent all the extra cap lamp batteries that they had on hand. Somewhere in communicating what equipment was needed, the request for scoops, batteries, and chargers was translated into cap lamp batteries. Thus, valuable time was lost as the needed items had to be requested again.

4. The Complete Picture

   When giving or receiving information about an emergency, be sure to cover these six points. It will take a little time, but it will eventually save everyone time. People will react more quickly. Their responses will be more appropriate and better coordinated.

   Listen to the dispatcher's instructions for assistance if you are in danger yourself. The dispatcher may tell you to leave the building, secure yourself in a room or take other action to protect yourself.

   Don't hang up until the call-taker tells you to. Follow any instructions the dispatcher gives you, such as meeting the officers at the door, or flagging down the firefighters at the curb.

   In summary, in reporting a 911 emergency, go through each step and give whatever information you have about each point. If you are receiving a warning, go through each step to be sure that you=re given all the information that you need to protect yourself. Following these guidelines should result in better communication and efficient emergency response.

E911

Enhanced 911 (E911) is an advanced form of the basic 911 service. With both wireless and wireline E911, the telephone number of the caller as well as other stored information about the location of the caller is transmitted to the PSAP where it is cross-referenced with an address database to automatically determine the caller's location. The emergency dispatcher can then use this information to direct public safety personnel responding to the emergency.

Part of the readiness of the 911 service is determined by the readiness of telecommunications carriers. In brief, 911 calls are routed from the caller to the PSAP by the telecommunication network's 911 tandem switch. The 911 tandem switch is a part of the telephone company's network .

Public Safety Answering Point

The second step in an emergency communication typically involves processing of the emergency call at the PSAP. This step primarily involves computer processing and often employs sophisticated systems and software. At the PSAP, the operator verifies or obtains the caller's location, determines the nature of the emergency, and decides which emergency response teams should be notified. In most cases, the caller is then conferenced or transferred to a secondary PSAP from which help will be dispatched. Secondary PSAPs might be located at fire dispatch offices, municipal police headquarters, or ambulance dispatch centers. Often, a single primary PSAP will answer for an entire region. Communities without PSAPs rely on public safety emergency operators and communications centers to process these calls.

The FCC has sought to facilitate the readiness of emergency communications through partnerships with telecommunications carriers, industry associations, federal agencies, and local governments. Attention has focused on the ability of the telephone network to complete a 911 emergency call, the public safety answering point (PSAP) where the call is received and processed, wireless communications for communication with units in the field, and the emergency alert system.

Wireless Call Dispatch

Upon processing the call, the PSAP operator or dispatch center will typically alert the appropriate emergency response team through a wireless land mobile radio system as is indicated by the Number 3 on the figure. During the emergency, these radio systems can be used by emergency units and officers at the scene to coordinate activities amongst themselves, with those units still on their way and with dispatchers and command bases. The FCC regulates the frequencies that these radio systems use, but the systems themselves are customer premises equipment sold directly to the local community by a vendor or vendors.

Emergency Alert System

"This is a test of the Emergency Alert System—this is only a test…"

You will occasionally hear or see these words on your local broadcast station or cable system.

In 1951, President Harry Truman established CONELRAD (Control of Electromagnetic Radiation) as the first national alerting system. Under CONELRAD, radio stations were required to broadcast only on certain frequencies during an emergency alert. This prevented an enemy from attacking by using transmissions from broadcast stations as a guide for their target.

CONELRAD later became the "Emergency Broadcast System" (EBS). The EBS was designed to provide the President with a means to address the American people in the event of a national emergency. Through the EBS, the President had access to thousands of broadcast stations to send an emergency message to the public.

In 1994, to overcome some of the limitations of the older EBS system,the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) replaced the EBS with the Emergency Alert System (EAS). The major difference between EBS and EAS is the method used to alert broadcast stations about an incoming message.

The EAS provides not only the President, but national, state and local authorities, with the ability to give emergency information to the general public via broadcast stations, cable and wireless cable systems. While participation in national EAS alerts is mandatory for these providers, state and local area EAS participation is voluntary.

 The FCC and EAS 

The FCC designed the EAS in cooperation with the National Weather Service (NWS) and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). Each of these agencies plays an important role.

• The FCC provides information to broadcasters, cable system operators, and other participants in the EAS regarding the technical and operational requirements of the EAS. Additionally, the FCC ensures that state and local EAS plans conform to the FCC’s rules and regulations.

• The NWS provides emergency weather information to alert the public about dangerous conditions.

• FEMA provides direction for state and local emergency planning officials to plan and implement their roles in the EAS.

The EAS uses state-of-the-art digital technology to distribute messages. The system provides state and local officials with a method to quickly send out important local emergency information targeted to a specific area. Also, the EAS digital signal is the same signal that the National Weather Service (NWS) uses on the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Weather Radio (NWR). This allows NWR signals to be decoded by the EAS equipment at broadcast stations and cable systems. Broadcasters and cable operators can then send NWS weather warning messages almost immediately to their audiences.

What does EAS mean for you?

EAS allows broadcast stations, cable systems, participating satellite companies, and other services to send and receive emergency information quickly and automatically, even if these facilities are unattended. EAS was designed so that if one link in the dissemination of alert information is broken, the entire system does not fail. EAS also automatically converts to any language used by the broadcast station or cable system.

Also, specially equipped consumer products, such as televisions, radios, pagers and other devices, can decode EAS messages. Consumers can program these products to "turn themselves on" for the messages they want to receive.

Finally in 1997, EAS replaced the weekly (on-air) "only a test" broadcast notifications used by the EBS with less obtrusive weekly internal tests and monthly on-air tests. All AM, FM, and TV broadcast stations, as well as cable systems, with 10,000 or more subscribers, use these procedures.

The ultimate goal of the EAS is to disseminate emergency information as quickly as possible to the people who need it.

The Amber Plan

A recently enacted component of the Emergency Alert System (EAS) has been credited with aiding in the rescue of several missing children who were kidnapped by strangers. It's called the AMBER Plan.

Background

The AMBER Plan is named for a 9-year-old girl who was kidnapped by a stranger and later found dead in 1996. In response to that tragedy, the radio stations in that area agreed to repeat news bulletins about abducted children, hoping the bulletins might help save the life of a child.

The name now stands for:

America's Missing: Broadcast Emergency Response.

It Works Like This

Once police officials have confirmed a missing child report, an alert is sent to radio stations, television stations, and cable companies. Broadcasters interrupt programming to relay the information using the EAS to voluntarily deliver the information to the community - the same concept used during severe weather or national emergencies. A description of the abducted child, suspected abductor and details of the abduction are broadcast to millions of listeners and viewers. (The alert is read after a distinctive sound tone and the statement: "This is an AMBER Alert.") The alert also provides information about how members of the public who have information relating to the abduction may contact the police or other appropriate law enforcement agency.

The goal of the AMBER Plan is to galvanize an entire community, adding millions of extra eyes and ears to watch, listen, and help in the safe return of the child and apprehension of the suspect.

The EAS is used to notify the public about severe weather and other national emergencies. In order to prevent the over use of the EAS system, two criteria must usually be met to enact the AMBER Plan:

1. A child must be 15 years of age or younger, or have a proven mental or physical disability.

2. Police must believe the child is in danger of serious bodily harm or death.

What You Can Do

If you see a child, adult, or vehicle fitting the AMBER Alert description, immediately call the telephone number given in the AMBER Alert and provide authorities with as much information as possible.

Remember

The AMBER Alerts are only used for the most serious child abduction cases, where the police believe the child is in danger of serious bodily harm or death, not for runaways or most parental abductions.

For additional information on the AMBER Plan, visit the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children's (NCMEC) Web site, www.missingkids.com.

Personal Emergency Response Systems

A Personal Emergency Response System (PERS) is an electronic device designed to let you summon help in an emergency. If you are a disabled or an older person living alone, you may be thinking about buying a PERS (also called a Medical Emergency Response System).

How a PERS Works

A PERS has three components:

1. A small radio transmitter (a help button carried or worn by the user).
2. A console connected to the user's telephone.
3. An emergency response center that monitors calls.

When emergency help (medical, fire, or police) is needed, the PERS user presses the transmitter's help button. It sends a radio signal to the console. The console automatically dials one or more pre-selected emergency telephone numbers. Most systems can dial out even if the phone is in use or off the hook. (This is called "seizing the line.") Most PERS are programmed to telephone an emergency response center where the caller is identified. The center will try to determine the nature of the emergency. Center staff also may review your medical history and check to see who should be notified.

If the center cannot contact you or determine whether an emergency exists, it will alert emergency service providers to go to your home. With most systems, the center will monitor the situation until the crisis is resolved.

Transmitters

Transmitters are light-weight, battery-powered devices that are activated by pressing one or two buttons. They can be worn on a chain around the neck or on a wrist band, or they can be carried on a belt or in a pocket. Because the transmitter is battery-powered, the batteries must be checked periodically to ensure they work. Some units have an indicator to help you know when to change batteries.

The Console

The console acts as an automatic dialing machine and sends the emergency alert through the phone lines. It works with any private telephone line and generally does not require rewiring. If you have more than one phone extension, a special jack or wiring may be required to enable the console to seize the line.

Emergency Response Center

There are two types of emergency response centers - provider-based and manufacturer-based. Provider-based centers usually are located in the user's local area and are operated by hospitals or social service agencies. Manufacturer-based operations usually have one national center. Sometimes, consumers who purchase systems can choose between provider-based and manufacturer-based centers, but consumers who rent systems from a PERS manufacturer usually must use its national center.

Purchasing, Renting, or Leasing a PERS

A PERS can be purchased, rented, or leased. Neither Medicare nor Medicaid, in most states, will pay for the purchase of equipment, nor will most insurance companies. The few insurance companies that do pay require a doctor's recommendation. Some hospitals and social service agencies may subsidize fees for low-income users. Purchase prices for a PERS normally range from $200 to more than $1,500. However, some consumers have reported paying $4,000 to $5,000 for a PERS. You also will have to pay an installation fee and a monthly monitoring charge which may cost from $10 to $30.

Rentals are available through national manufacturers, local distributors, hospitals, and social service agencies. Monthly fees may range from $15 to $50 and usually include the monitoring service.

Lease agreements can be long-term or lease-to-purchase. If you lease, review the contract carefully before signing. Make special note of cancellation clauses, which may require you to pay a cancellation fee or other charges.

Before purchasing, renting, or leasing a system, check the unit for defects. Ask to see the warranty and service contract and get any questions resolved. Ask about the repair policy. Find out how to arrange for a replacement or repair if a malfunction occurs.

If a PERS salesperson solicits you by phone, and you are interested in the device, ask for information about prices, system features, and services. You can then use the information to comparison shop among other PERS providers. If the salesperson is reluctant to provide information except through an in-home visit, you may want to consider doing business with another company. In-home sales visits can be high pressure, and the salesperson may urge you to buy before you are ready to make a decision.

Before doing business with companies selling PERS, you may want to contact your local consumer protection agency, state Attorney General's Office, and Better Business Bureau (BBB). Ask if any complaints have been filed against the companies you are considering. You also may want to get recommendations from friends, neighbors, or relatives who use emergency response systems.

Shopping Checklist

To help you shop for a PERS that meets your needs, consider the following suggestions:

1. Check out several systems before making a decision.
2. Find out if you can use the system with other response centers. For example, can you use the same system if you move?
3. Ask about the pricing, features, and servicing of each system and compare costs.
4. Make sure the system is easy to use.
5. Test the system to make sure it works from every point in and around your home. Make sure nothing interferes with transmissions.
6. Read your purchase, rental, or lease agreement carefully before signing.

Questions to Ask the Response Center

You also may want to ask questions about the response center:

1. Is the monitoring center available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week?
2. What is the average response time?
3. What kind of training does the center staff receive?
4. What procedures does the center use to test systems in your home? How often are tests conducted?

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